MUGHAL GARDENS

ENVIRINMENT

THE MUGHALS WERE MAINLY CONCERNED WITH TWO AREAS AGRA & DELHI.
THE CLIMATE IS TROPICAL WITH MONSOON FROM JUNE TO SEPTEMBER &INTENSE HEAT FROM MARCH TO JUNE.
THE NATURAL LANDSCAPE IS FLAT, JUNGLES, & FEATURELESSEXCEPT FOR RIVERS.
GARDENS WERE AN INTEGRAL PART OF MUGHAL LIFE.
THE MUGHAL COURT BEING CONSTANTLY ON THE MOVE, GARDEN PALACES AND GARDENS WITHIN FORT COMPLEXES WERE HIGHLY APPRECIATED AS PLACES OF RELAXATION AND AS SETTINGS FOR COURT CEREMONIAL.

LANDSCAPE

FOR THE MUGHALS GARDENS WERE LIKE A GLIMPSE OF HEAVEN AND THEY DREW INSPIRATION FROM THE QURAN, MODIFYING AND ADAPTING ESTABLISHED DESIGNS TO SHAPE THEIR PARADISE ON EARTH.
A MUGHAL GARDEN OR CHARBAGH WAS A PERFECTLY BALANCED FORMAL COMPOSITION OF SPACE, VEGETATION AND ARCHITECTURE, TEXTURE AND COLOUR, LIGHT AND SHADE, DESIGNED TO ADDRESS AND DELIGHT ALL THE SENSES.
WHILE THE GEOMETRY THEMSELVES REMAINED TRADITIONAL TO THE CONCEPTION OF THE BROADER LANDSCAPE WAS BOTH ORIGINAL &ON GRAND SCALE.
GARDENS WERE MAINLY ON THE LOWER SLOPES OF THE ENCLOSING MOUNTAINS LUSCIOUS WITH STREAMS.


ELEMENTS

WATER FORMED A LINK BETWEEN THE VARIOUS ELEMENTS OF THE GARDEN.
EXTENSIVE ENGINEERING WORKS WERE NEEDED TO BRING IT TO THE GARDENS, SOMETIMES THROUGH CANALS RUNNING OVER MANY MILES AND IRRIGATING THE LANDSCAPE AS THEY PASSED, SOMETIMES LABORIOUSLY LIFTED FROM THE RIVER OR FROM WELLS SUNK DEEP INTO THE GROUND.
THE PLAY OF WATER IN COUNTLESS FOUNTAINS CAUSED THE LIGHT TO SPARKLE AND COVERED THE SURFACE WITH RIPPLES.
THERE WERE BASICALLY TWO TYPES OF MUGHAL GARDENS THOSE SURROUNDING A MAUSOLEUM AND THOSE DEVELOPED FOR PLEASURE.
 THE FIRST TYPE OF GARDEN WAS BUILT BY THE OWNER DURING HIS OWN LIFE FOR HOLDING RECEPTIONS AND BANQUETS. AFTER HIS DEATH IT WAS CONVERTED INTO A TOMB. FOR EXAMPLE THE TOMB OF ITIMAD-UD-DAULAH WAS A GARDEN HOUSE BEFORE IT WAS CHANGED.
THE PLAN OF THE MAUSOLEUM GARDEN WAS BASED ON CHAR BAGH PATTERN. IN THE CENTRE OF THE GARDEN WAS THE TOMB BUILDING AND FROM ITS VARIOUS FACADES THE WATER CHANNELS RADIATED IN THE FOUR DIRECTIONS.
AN EXCEPTION TO THIS IS THE SETTING OF TAJ MAHAL, WHICH IS LOCATED AT THE END OF THE GARDEN.

TREES

THE MUGHALS IN THEIR GARDENS PLANTED MIXED AVENUES OF CYPRESSES AND FLOWERING TREES LIKE WHITE FLOWER VARIETY OF KACHNAR OR THE ORANGE AND LEMON TREES.
IN KASHMIR TREES LIKE APPLE AND PLUM WERE PLANTED ALONG WITH CYPRESS, WILLOW AND CHENAR. SOMETIMES ORANGES AND POMEGRANATES WERE ALSO PLANTED. TREES LIKE ORANGES, POMEGRANATES, ALMONDS, PLUMS AND WHITE KACHNARS SYMBOLIZED YOUTH, LIFE AND HOPE.
APART FROM THESE MUGHALS ALSO PLANTED FRUITS LIKE ALMOND, CHERRY, COCONUT, DATE, GRAPE, GUAVA, MANGO, MELON, MULBERRY, PEACH, PEAS, PINEAPPLE, BANANA, QUINCE, SUGARCANE AND WALNUT.

FLOWERS

THEY ALSO SELECTED SOME OF THE BEST VARIETIES OF FLOWERS FOR THEIR GARDENS. IN THE GARDENS OF KASHMIR THEY GREW FLOWERS LIKE IRIS, LILAC, DAFFODILS, NARCISSUS, TULIPS.
IN THE REGION OF DELHI AND AGRA FLOWERS SUCH AS CARNATIONS, ROSES, JASMINES, HOLLYHOCK PEONIES, LOTUS, MARIGOLD, VIOLETS, TUBEROSE, ZINNIA WERE POPULAR.
THE EMPERORS HAD AN ACTIVE ROLE IN THE SETTING UP OF GARDENS. A PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE OF TREES AND PLANTS WAS COMBINED WITH A THOROUGH UNDERSTANDING OF WATER.

RAMBAGH

THE OLDEST MUGHAL GARDEN NOEW EXTENT ‘RAMBAGH’ WAS LAID OUT BY THE EMPEROR BABAR c.1528 ON THE EASTERN BANK OF JUMNA OPPOSITE AGRA, HIS CAPITAL.
THE FIRST NEED WAS WATER. WATER FOR IRRIGATION WAS FED INTO GARDEN BY THE RAISED CANAL.
IN THE FOREGROUND IS A STONE CHADARAH SCALLOPED TO BREAK THE WATER SURFACE &CREAT SPARKLE.
BAGH-I-GUL AFSHAN OR RAM BAGH IS ONE OF THE EARLIEST GARDENS OF MUGHAL EMPIRE.

ORIGINALLY THIS GARDEN WAS SET UP BY BABUR BUT IT WAS LATER ON RENOVATED AND RENAMED BY JEHANGIR AS BAGH-I-NUR AFSHAN.
 THIS GARDEN IS SITUATED ON THE SOUTHERN SIDE OF RIVERINE SARAI OF NUR JEHAN. BABUR INTRODUCED IN THIS GARDEN THREE TERRACE.
THE WATER, WHICH WAS DRAWN FROM THE RIVER, DESCENDED FROM ONE TERRACE TO ANOTHER AFTER FLOWING THROUGH A NETWORK OF CANALS, TANKS AND WATER CHUTES.
EACH WATER CHUTES HAD STAIRS ON BOTH SIDES AND ENDS IN A RED SANDSTONE
POND.

RED FORT

THE RED FORT AT DELHI WAS BUILT BY SHAH JAHAN BETWEEN 1639 &1648.
SHALAMAR BAGH

THE BAGH ORIGINALLY CONSISTED OF THREE FOURFOLD GARDENS (PUBLIC AUDIENCE , PRIVATE GARDEN & HAREM).THREADED ON A CANAL LINKED WITH LAKE DAL.
ON BOTH SIDES OF THE CENTRAL CHENAR AVENUE WERE ORCHARDS.
EACH GARDEN WAS LEVELLED TO FIT THE SLOPING SITE AND EACH OF THE FOURFOLD PARTS MODELLED FOR IRRIGATION.

TAJ MAHAL

THE TAJ MAHAL AT AGRA WAS BUILT BY SHAH JAHAN IN THE MEMORY OF HIS MOST CHERISHED WIFE, MUMTAZ MAHAL.
THE PLAN BREAKS WITH PRESIDENT, SINCE THE TOMB STANDS, NOT IN THE CENTRE OF THE CHAR-BAGH BUT ON A TERRACE TO THE NORTH, OVERLOOKING THE JUMNA.

Architectural Wonders

NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

The Industrial Revolution of the 19th century ushered in new technologies. Some of these inventions involved use of natural resources like coal and oil. The thought of exhaustible nature of these resources and the environmental damage from the use of these resources never occurred either to the inventors or the subsequent generations. In the quest to sustain galloping economic activity, the dependence on coal and oil has soared at a phenomenal rate over the years. The burnt fuels result in the release of carbon dioxide and other gases into the atmosphere causing environmental damage. It has become imperative to look at energy technology with a new perspective.

If we stop using electricity produced by coal & other conventional energy resources, the production will automatically stop.
Therefore, it is necessary to start from the domestic level.

The types of resources that can be used are-
Solar energy
Vermiculture
Biogas
Biomass
Wind turbines
Hydel energy

Since most renewable energy is ultimately solar energy that is directly collected from sunlight. Energy is released by the sun as electromagnetic waves.
Solar energy can be used for lighting street lights & in pumps.

This system is designed for outdoor application in un-electrified remote rural areas. This system is an ideal application for campus and village street lighting. The system is provided with battery storage backup sufficient to operate the light for 10-11 hours daily.
The solar street light system comprise of
74 Wp Solar PV Module
12 V, 75 Ah Tubular plate battery with battery box
Charge Controller cum inverter (20-35 kHz)
11 Watt CFL Lamp with fixtures
4 metre mildsteel lamp post above ground level with weather proof paint and mounting hardware.

The solar water pumping system is a operating on power generated using solar PV (photovoltaic) system. The power generated by solar cells is used for operating DC surface centrifugal mono-block pumpset for lifting water from bore / open well or water reservoir for minor irrigation and drinking water purpose.

Worms convert organic wastes into one of the best fertilizers. This process is called as vermiculture.
Vermiculture helps in reducing the pressure on the waste lands in the city.
The best kind of worms for composting are "red worms," or "red wigglers." They are often found in old compost piles, but are different from the earthworms you would normally find in the ground. These worms have a big appetite, reproduce quickly, and thrive in confinement. They can eat more than their own weight in food every day! When purchasing red worms, one pound is all you need to get started.

Advantages of Vermicomposting
Vermicompost is an ecofriendly natural fertilizer prepared from biodegradable organic wastes and is free from chemical inputs.
It does not have any adverse effect on soil, plant and environment.
It improves soil aeration, texture and tilth thereby reducing soil compaction.
It improves water retention capacity of soil because of its high organic matter content.
It promotes better root growth and nutrient absorption.
It improves nutrient status of soil-both macro-nutrients and micro-nutrients.

BIO ENERGY
The exhaustibility of LPG & other conventional sources has made these resources very costly.
A cheap way to produce cooking gas is by installing a Biogas plant.
When any organic matter, such as cowdung, crop residue and kitchen waste is fermented in the absence of oxygen, biogas is generated which contains combustible methane (around 60% ) along with carbon dioxide, and traces of other gases. This gas can serve as a convenient fuel that can be used for a variety of applications, such as cooking, lighting, and motive power.
Biomass is yet another important source of energy with potential to generate power to the extent of more than 50% of the country’s requirements.
India is predominantly an agricultural economy, with huge quantity of biomass
available in the form of husk, straw, shells of coconuts wild bushes etc.
Biomass is used as a fertilizer. It is the slurry produced from the Biogas plant.


The origin of Wind energy is sun. When sun rays fall on the earth, its surface gets heated up and as a consequence uneven winds are formed. Kinetic energy in the wind can be used to run wind turbines but the output power depends on the wind speed. Turbines generally require a wind in the range 5.5 m/s.

Blowing wind spins the blades on a wind turbine -- just like a large toy pinwheel. This device is called a wind turbine The blades of the turbine are attached to a hub that is mounted on a turning shaft. The shaft goes through a gear transmission box where the turning speed is increased. The transmission is attached to a high speed shaft which turns a generator that makes electricity.
If the wind gets too high, the turbine has a brake that will keep the blades from turning too fast and being damaged.
You can use a single smaller wind turbine to power a home or a school. A small turbine makes enough energy for a house. In the picture on the right, the children at this school are playing beneath a wind turbine that makes enough electricity to power their entire school.

Energy in water can be harnessed & used, in the form of motive energy or temperature differences. Since water is about thousand times heavier than air is, even a slow flowing stream of water can yield great amounts of energy.

SMALL SCALE HYDEL PROJECTS



PICO HYDRO projects are hydroelectric projects with a power generation capacity of up to 10 KW which convert energy in water flowing down a gradient into electrical energy. It comprises of tapping water from a natural stream flowing down from a gradient at higher elevation, passing through a water conducting system and letting into a turbine which drives an electrical generator to produce electricity.

ENGLISH LANDSCAPES and ITS INFLUENCE IN INDIA

ENGLISH LANDSCAPES:

ENGLAND WAS THE LAND OF SOFT UNDULATIONS, LUSH MEADOWS , GREEN GRASS AND LUXURIENT TREES.
BEFORE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY, THE ENGLISH DIDN’T HAVE A NATIONAL STYLE OF GARDENING. ENGLISH GARDENS TENDEND TO FOLLOW FRENCH & DUTCH FASHIONS.DURING THE LATTER HALF OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY,ENGLISH LANDSCAPE GARDENS WERE FORMAL AS ALMOST ALL EUROPEANGARDENS.
THE DESIRE FOR MORE “NATURAL” GARDENS WAS EXPRESSED BY WRITERS BEFORE IT WAS ATTEMPTED BY GARDEN DESIGNERS.
THE VISUAL LOOK OF THE ENGLISH GARDENS WAS MAINLY INSPIRED BY EUROPEAN LANDSCAPE PAINTINGS.
THE ENGLISH LANDSCAPE STYLE WAS DOINATED BY THREE DESIGNERS: WILLIAM KENT, LANCELOT BROWN & HUMPHREY REPTON.



SALIENT FEATURES OF ENGLISH LANDSCAPES:
GRAND AVENUES
THE PRINCIPAL PATHS WERE BROAD AND STRAIGHT,BUT BETWEEN THE PRINCIPAL WALKS WERE NARROW PATHS WINDING THROUGH THE WOODS IN A MORE “NATURAL” MANNER.
USE OF CASCADES &FOUNTAINS.
ENGLISH LANDSCAPES WERE PICTURESQUE & FULL OF CONFOUNDS AND SURPRISES.
USE OF LAWN.

HA-HA FENCE:
FENCE:WHICH MADE POSSIBLE TO SEE THAT ALL THE NATURE WAS A GARDEN.
-THIS FENCE LEAPING WAS A DRY DITCH WITH A RETAINING WALL ON THE SIDE OF THE GARDEN THAT ONE WANTS TO KEEP GRAZING ANIMALS OUT OF.
-THE OTHER SIDE OF THE DITCH GENTLY SLOPES DOWN TO THE BASE OF THE WALL,WHICH IS ALL ENOUGH TO KEEP MOST ANIMALS FROM JUMPING TO THE TOP.
-FROM A DISTANCE,A HA-HA IS ALMOST INVISIBLE,CREATING AN UNBROKEN VISTA FROM THE HOUSE WITH NO DIVISION BETWEEN THE LAWN & SURROUNDING MEADOWS.

HEAVILY PLANTED HILLSIDES TO INCREASE THE SENSE OF ENCLOSURE & REMOTENESS.
PLANTATION OF TREES IN GROUPS OR CLUMPS.
PRINCIPAL TREES PLANTED WERE-OAK, ELMS, BEECHES, ASH & LIMES, SCOTS PINES & LARCHES BEING USED SPARINGLY TO GIVE VARIETY OF TONE.

Eg.THE GARDENS OF STOWE,BUCKINGHAMSHIRE

THE MOST IMPORTANT OF THE EARLY ENGLISH LANDSCAPE
GARDENS WAS AT STOWE WHERE WILLIAM KENT’S IDEAS WERE IMPLEMENTED.
THE DISTANCE FROM NORTH TO SOUTH IS NEARLY THREE MILES.
THE INNER PARK IS ENCOMPASSED BY A FORMAL FRAME OF TREES & THE FIRST HA-HA FENCE.THE OUTER PARK ATTUNED TO HUNTING AND RIDING,& HAS A BAROQUE IMMENSITY OF SCALE.
THE CENTRAL AVENUE CREATES PICTORIAL SPACE WHEN SEEN FROM THE HOUSE.



INFLUENCE IN INDIA:
DURING THE BRITISH PERIOD IN INDIA,THEY DESIGNED DIFFERENT BUILDINGS SUCH AS GOVT. HOUSES,BUNGLOWS OR VILLAS,RECREATIONAL CLUBS,CITY LANDSCAPES etc.
THE GARDENS AROUND THESE SHOW USE OF TYPICAL ENGLISH GARDEN ELEMENTS.
ALSO,THE EXISTING GARDENS IN INDIA SHOW THE INFLUENCE OF ENGLISH GARDENS IN IT.
FOLLOWING ARE THE EXAMPLES:
-CITY OF NEW DELHI,DESIGNED BY LUTYENS.
-VICEROY GARDEN,DELHI
-TOMB GARDENS

CITY OF NEW DELHI,BY LUTYENS:

NEW DELHI WAS LAID OUT ON THE GARDEN CITY PATTERN IN 1912 BY EDWIN LUTYENS.
LUTYENS’ PLAN WAS TO LANDSCAPE A VAST EXPANCE JOINING THE RIVER YAMUNA & THE ARAVALI RIDGE.
NEW DELHI WAS LAID ON THE GEOMETRIC PATTERN OVER A TRIANGULAR BASE.
LUTYENS VISUALISED THAT THE CENTRAL VISTA WOULD HAVE A GRAND VISION,HILIGHTING THE SUPREMACY OF THE BRITISH RULE.THUS,VICEROY’S PALACE ON THE RAISINA HILL WITH THE TWO SECRETARIET BUILDINGS ON EITHER SIDE OF IT OCCUPED THE HIGHEST LAND OF THE HILL &WOULD DOMINATE THE SKYLINE OF NEW DELHI.
THE MAIN FEATURE OF NEW DELHI IS THE BROAD PROCESSIONAL AVENUE ie RAJPATH.


THE GENERAL STREET PATTERN IS DIAGONAL TO THE MAIN AXIS


VICEROY’S GARDEN,NEW DELHI:


THE MAIN FEATURES OF VICEROY’S GARDEN ARE:
INTRODUCTION OF LAWN
USE OF FOUNTAINS IN CORTYARDS,EVEN ON THE ROOF.
GRAND AVENUES
STRAIGHT & BROAD PATH WAYS
32 BROAD STEPS LEADING UP TO THE PORTICO IS LIKE ARRIVING AT THE STEPS OF ST.PETER’S.
VERANDAS.

VICEROY’S GARDEN


SUMMARY:
THE MAIN INFUENCE OF ENGLISH LANDSCAPES IN INDIA WAS ‘THE INTRODUCTION OF LAWN’,WHICH WAS USED MAINLY FOR TEA PARTIES IN ENGLAND.
THE GRAND AVENUES
STRAIGHT&BROAD PATHWAYS
USE OF FOUNTAINS etc.

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN FLOOD PRONE AREAS (BANGLADESH)

INTRODUCTION:
-A large proportion of the countryside as well as the majority of urban areas in
Bangladesh is flood-prone. During heavy flood, more than 60% of the land is
inundated.
-Recent floods in 2004 has destroyed many houses and about 1 million people
became homeless. To a large extent, the patterns and causes of destruction
seem to result from poor technical knowledge and wrong perceptions.
1 Technocrats do not adequately support housing projects for low-income,
flood-vulnerable communities undertaken by NGOs and the government, and
houses are mostly owner-built without proper technical guidance.
1 One of the AUDMP findings of post disaster losses of the housing stock in
Bangladesh after 2004 floods is that most of these designs are prepared by
people who are not trained as building professionals, so when implemented,
many problems emerge.
1 The usual tendency is to apply the same model irrespective of context - for
example, the same house design is built on highland and low-lying flood-
prone areas.
1 In most cases, the cost is significantly prohibitive in terms of microcredit
recovery from poor people and this high cost prevents providing subsidized
housing to a large number of people who need them.
1 There is thus a need for developing housing which is appropriate for flood-
prone areas, where the suggested solutions are ‘cost-effective’ - that is,
rationalization of economy without compromising quality.
1 Those who work in the low-income housing sector in Bangladesh in general
are still to adopt such techniques.


TRADITIONAL MATERIALS USED:

FOUNDATION: In kutcha houses with usually bamboo and sometimes timber posts embedded directly into the earthen plinth. Extremely vulnerable and get damaged even in low intensity flood, thus requiring frequent maintenance.
In moderate to high intensity flood, especially if accompanied by currents, earthen plinths tend to get completely
washed off and have to be rebuilt. Bamboo or timber posts in saturated soil, especially during long duration or recurrent flood, get rotten at the base, thus weakening the entire structure of the buildings to damage by strong wind, differential settlement, sagging of roofing elements and doors, windows and wall elements developing cracks and losing alignment.
Frequent replacement of bamboo posts of kutcha houses is done regularly in flood-prone areas. The typical earthen
plinth in many semi-pucca houses also behaves similarly.

In semi-pucca houses, locally known as “dowa-posta”, is better at resisting erosion at the sides of a building, but the infill earth floor can experience settlement due to saturation and in prolonged flood can
become muddy, unusable and the mud can escape from below. At the same time, scouring of soil cover of the typically
shallow foundation of the perimeter brick wall can result in its instability and settlement.

WALLS:
ORGANIC/BAMBOO MATT: Typically in kutcha houses; semi-pucca houses also often have
bamboo mat walls. Organic materials (e.g. jutestick, catkin grass) have a lifespan of 2-3 years and bamboo mat 4-5 years. Decay can get accelerated in flood. In flood of high depth and moderate duration, the damage begins in the lower part of walls and hence weakens the walls and eventually results in
complete damage. Flood with strong currents can detach wall panels and wash them away, leading to partial or complete loss, especially if the connections to posts are weak.
EARTH: Used in kutcha and semi-pucca houses. Various types according to region, but not
prevalent in all areas. In monolithic construction, flood water can cause serious damage: once the base
gets affected, the entire structure is liable to collapse, often rapidly.

ROOF:
THATCH: Typically in kutcha houses, made from catkin grass, rice, wheat ormaize straw with usually bamboo and sometimes reed stalk framing. Normally has to be renewed every 2-3 years. Results in decay in houses of low height and during flood of very high depth and duration, if thatch comes into contact with flood water. In such conditions, if also
accompanied by strong current, thatching materials can get detached and washed away.
Secondary hazard often connected to flood is heavy rainfall, which can cause damage. Strong wind can also blow away thatching materials and damage frame.

APPROPRIATE CONSTRUCTION METHODS:

FOUNDATION:
-Stabilization of the typical earthen plinth can be carried out with a mixture of earth and cement.
-The proportion of cement to be added depends on the nature of the soil which can easily be tested on site.
-For soil with more than 40% sandy-silty particles, 5% cement additive is adequate. For soil with less sandy content, sand has to be added to raise the content above 40% and may require a somewhat higher
proportion of cement additive.

-Since very little load is imposed on the wall, the footing can be constructed with brick without the need for a concrete footing.
-Minimum 1:4 cement-sand mix should be used.
-Soil cover on the foundation should be thoroughly compacted and should
preferably have plant or grassy cover to prevent scouring during flood.
1 Infill should be of cement-stabilized soil to prevent muddiness, settlement due to saturation and loss of soil from below.

-Cheapest method for protecting from dampness lower end of bamboo/ timber posts typically embedded into the ground.
-Local method known by most villagers, but not widely practiced, and thus requires promotion.
-Molten bitumen, Mobil or sump oil, or a combination of these can be used.


WALLS:
There are different ways in which the bamboo matt walls of the super structure can be protected-
1. Detachable lower panels
2. Painting with Bitumen
3. Chemical treatment of Bamboo matt walls

To Strengthen earth walls there are two techniques-
Internal framework- Internal framework is provided so that there is no compromise with the structural stability, when the flood washes away the mud walls.
Cement Stabilization-Ideal cost saving method for inside walls in buildings with brick outer walls and damp-proof
plinths.
-Processing and preparation of mix similar to that of plinth stabilization
-Walls can be built by ramming inside wooden shuttering or by making blocks with a simple
brick mold.

ROOF:
CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF THATCH: -Similar to treatment of bamboo mats and battens
-Fibrous thatching material, such as catkin grass, rice straw, palm fronds, wheat, maize or sugarcane leaves needs to be soaked in preservative solution for only 12 hours (bamboo mats and battens 24 hours).

CLIMATE RESPONSIVE ARCHITECTURE - Thermal mass: walls and floors

THERMAL MASS: WALLS & FLOORS

Thermal mass surfaces should be large enough to store adequate heat & cold.
There are three basic approaches to sizing the area & thickness of thermal mass. The first is appropriate for storage system like trombe walls, roof ponds & sun spaces, where the collection area equals the surface area of the mass storage and the thickness is the primary consideration. The second is more appropriate for direct gain, where both mass surface area and thickness is the primary consideration. The second is more appropriate for direct gain, where both mass surface area and thickness are variable. Because the storage mass is in the inhabited space in direct gain schemes, air and mass temperatures can not be allowed to get too high or too low, so this system depends on the larger transfer areas afforded by relatively thin masonry walls. The third approach is when water is used for storage, where sizing is based on volume and the surface areas can be smaller, because heat is transferred, by convection more readily between the surface and the bulk of mass in water than it is in masonry.

To size the mass for passive solar heating, enter the graph, sizing Thermal Mass for Direct Gain Rooms & Sun spaces, on the horizontal axis with the estimated solar savings fraction for the design. Move vertically to intersect the diagonal line for the mass type and thickness, then horizontally to read the recommended ratio of mass area to solar glazing area.

Sun spaces are assumed to have a masonry wall between the sun space and the room; this should be 230-305mm thick. The floor and side walls of the sun space should also be massive, with a minimum of 3m2 of exposed mass per m2 of south facing sun space glazing. Sun spaces with an insulated wall between the sun space and the room they heat by convection should have 170-365L of water per m2 of south collector glass.




Evaluation of the dynamic thermal performance of massive wall systems combines experimental and theoretical analysis. For complex three-dimensional building envelope components, it is based on dynamic three-dimensional finite difference simulations, whole building energy computer modeling, dynamic guarded hot box tests, and sometimes, comparative field performance investigations. Dynamic hot box tests serve to calibrate detailed computer models. It is important to know, that all these costly and time-consuming steps are not necessary for all wall assemblies. For simple one-dimensional walls, only theoretical analysis can be performed without compromising accuracy.
Masonry or concrete walls having a mass greater than or equal to 146 kg/m2 (30 lb/ft2) and solid wood walls having a mass greater than or equal to 98 kg/m2 (20 lb/ft2) as massive walls. They have heat capacities equal to or exceeding 266 J/m2K (6 Btu/ft2 0F). The same classification is used in this work.
Since 95 percent of U.S. residential buildings is constructed using light-weight building envelope technologies, energy performance of wood-framed walls is utilized as a base for performance comparisons in this work. A wide range of traditional wood-framed wall assemblies is considered, R-values from 0.4 to 6.9 Km2/ W (2.3 to 39.0 hft2 F/Btu). Energy performance data, generated by whole building energy simulations for residential buildings containing wood-framed walls, is compared against similar data generated for four basic types of massive walls. Each wall type consists of the same materials, concrete and insulating foam. Within the same type of walls, all sequences of materials are the same, however, individual material thicknesses change to match necessary R-values. Massive wall R-values range in this work from R - 0.88 m2K/W (5.0 hft2F/Btu) to R - 3.03 m2K/W (17.2 hft2F/Btu). Four basic material configurations are considered for massive walls:
- Exterior thermal insulation, interior mass (Intmass)
- Exterior mass, interior thermal insulation (Extmass)
- Exterior mass, core thermal insulation, interior mass, and (CIC)
- Exterior thermal insulation, core mass, interior thermal insulation (ICI).
The four types of massive walls above approximate most of the currently used multilayer massive wall configurations. For example, the first two wall configurations may represent any masonry block wall insulated with rigid foam sheathing. The last wall configuration may represent Insulated Concrete Forms (ICF) walls. Therefore, results presented in this work can be used for approximate energy calculations of most massive wall systems.

Architectural presentation-Frank Lloyd Wright

BIOGRAPHY
Frank Lloyd Wright was born as Frank Lincoln Wright in southwestern Wisconsin, USA, on June 8, 1867.
His father, William Carey Wright, was a musician and a preacher. His mother, Anna Lloyd-Jones was a teacher.
It is said that Anna Lloyd-Jones placed pictures of great buildings in young Frank's nursery as part of training him up from the earliest possible moment as an architect.
Wright briefly studied civil engineering at the University of Wisconsin in Madison, after which he moved to Chicago to work for a year in the architectural firm of J. Lyman Silsbee.
In 1887, he was hired as a draftsman in the firm of Adler and Sullivan. At the
time the firm was designing Chicago's Auditorium Building.
Wright eventually became the chief draftsman, and also the man in charge of the firm's residential designs.
Under Sullivan, Wright began to develop his own architectural ideas.

Wright started his own firm in 1893 after being fired from Adler and Sullivan, first working out of a studio which was built onto his home in Oak Park.
“Early in my career I was a very arrogant young man.. I was so sure of my ground and I had to choose between an honest arrogance and a hypercritical humility... and I deliberately choose an honest arrogance, and I've never been sorry.” - Frank Lloyd Wright
Between 1893 and 1901,49 buildings designed by Wright were built. During this period he began to develop his ideas which would come to together in his "Prairie House" concept.
Into 1909, he developed and refined the prairie style. Frank Lloyd Wright founded the "prairie school" of architecture, and his art of this early productive period in his life is also considered as part of the "Arts and Crafts movement".

PHILOSOPHY OF ARCHITECTURE

No house should ever be on a hill or on anything. It should be of the hill- Belonging to it. Hill and house should live together each the happier for the other.
Wright created the philosophy of "organic architecture," the central principle of which maintains that the building should develop out of its natural surroundings.
From the outset he exhibited bold originality in his designs for both private and public structures and rebelled against the ornate neoclassic and Victorian styles favored by conventional architects.
He was opposed to the mechanical imposition of preconceived styles.
He believed that the architectural form must ultimately be determined by the particular function of the building, its environment, and the type of materials employed in the structure.

Among his fundamental contributions was the use of various building materials for their natural colors and textures, as well as for their structural characteristics.

His exteriors incorporated low horizontal proportions and strongly projecting eaves. This concept was particularly evident in his early Prairie style, single-family houses.

THE PRAIRIE STYLE
Through the turn of the century, Wright's distinctively personal style was evolving, and his work in these years foreshadowed his so-called "prairie style," a term deriving from the publication in 1901 of "A Home in a Prairie Town" which he designed for the Ladies' Home Journal
Prairie houses were characterized by low, horizontal lines that were meant to blend with the flat landscape around them. Typically, these structures were built around a central chimney, consisted of broad open spaces instead of strictly defined rooms.

FALLING WATER




Falling water is often described as "the best-known private home for someone not of royal blood in the history of the world."

It is also the fullest realization of Wright's lifelong ideal of a living place completely at one with nature.

Fallingwater is constructed on three levels primarily of reinforced concrete, native sandstone and glass.
Cantilevered balconies are anchored in solid rock. Reinforced-concrete cantilever slabs project from these rocks to carry the house over the stream.
From the living room, a suspended stairway leads directly down to the stream.
On the third level immediately above, terraces open from sleeping quarters, emphasizing the horizontal nature of the structural forms.






THE GUGGENHIEM MUSEUM



In 1943,Wright was commissioned to design a museum to house the Solomon R. Guggehiem Collection of Non-Objective Paintings.
The many delays in implementing the plan, led to completion of the project in 1956.
The spiral form that characterized the design from the earliest stage went through several versions; with tiers of the same size, or growing progressively smaller toward the top, or expanding in size as the building rose.




UNITY TEMPLE


Unity Church was the first public building of any type in America to be built entirely of exposed concrete. Its use was dictated in part by the need to keep construction costs low, but Wright's principle of integrity therefore built in character out of the same material, i.e., reinforced concrete.
The ceiling is opened above the central cube into a grid of beams, into which are set 25 stained-glass skylights.
Clerestories run full width across the tops of each balcony just under the roof. Light enters the sanctuary only from above and is filtered by the colors and patterns of the leaded windows and skylights.
As Wright said, the space is flooded "with light from above to get a sense of a happy cloudless day into the room... the light would, rain or shine, have the warmth of sunlight."


EPILOGUE

Wright never retired; he died on April 9, 1959 at the age of ninety-two in Arizona. He was interred at the graveyard at Unity Chapel.

The epitaph at his Wisconsin grave site reads:

"Love of an idea, is the love of God"