CHINA

The development of architecture in 20th-century China followed closely its political
evolution. Starting out as an imperial regime nearly colonized by Western powers, China
was declared a republic in 1911, only to fall into the chaos of the warlord period a year
later. With the Japanese invasion of China in 1937, the country was engaged in eight
years of warfare. When the Communists first took power in the country in 1949, after
four years of civil war following the Japanese surrender, China enjoyed ten years of
stability. A series of political campaigns took place between 1959 and 1976, disrupting
the normal functioning of the country. In 1979 China adopted an economic opendoor
policy; foreign and multinational companies were invited to invest and trade in the
country. This resulted in a booming economy and strong foreign trade in the last decades
of the 20th century. Architectural style, spatial conception, architectural symbolism, the
choice of architect, and construction technology were all directly influenced by the
country’s political, commercial, and cultural development.
Up until 1911, most buildings constructed in China were of the distinctive
traditional style with a timber post-and-beam structure supporting a heavy
and curved tile roof. In-filled wall between the timber frames was of
timber, brick, or pounded earth construction. Buildings were normally of a
single story; only an exceptional structure such as a pagoda or a town
tower was of two- or multiple-storied construction. Several buildings were
arranged around a courtyard, and a few courtyards lined up along a central
axis or two or three axes made up a complex. Building types were
extremely limited in traditional China, which included palaces, princes,
and official residences, government offices, temples and altars, shops,
academies, ancestral halls, houses, and gardens all sharing the same form,
construction, and spatial layout. Western architecture appeared in China
with the introduction of new building types from the West. These included
churches, custom houses, railway stations, and commercial offices. Fine
examples of churches include the neobaroque Catholic South Church in
Beijing of 1657 and the neo-Gothic Holy Trinity Cathedral in Shanghai,
designed by Sir George Gilbert Scott and constructed in 1866. A small
railway station was built outside the imperial gate of Beijing in 1900. The
introduction of Western-styled buildings at the beginning of the 20th
century set the scene for Chinese architecture and more dramatically, the
International Style had by the end of the century completely obliterated
the traditional architectural environment in the cities. The remaining
Chinese characteristics are seen only in the buildings of nationalistic style.
The architectural development can be divided into four periods: the
introduction of Western-styled architecture (1900–28), the Modern
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movement or national style (1929–49), a period of pragmatism coupled
with the search for a new national identity (1949–79), and a period of
intense internationalization (1979–2000).
1900–28
With the signing of the Nanjing treaty with Great Britain in 1842, five port cities were
designated for foreign trade where Western merchants could set up trading houses. In
1850 the British set up the first concession in Shanghai, and Western-style buildings and
city planning began to appear in major cities of China. Most Western-style buildings in
China in the 19th century were neo-Gothic and neoclassical churches, arcaded shop
houses, embassy buildings, and industrial buildings. Many houses, shop buildings, and
offices were also built in the Colonial style first seen in the British colonies of India and
Southeast Asia. After the Boxer Rebellion of 1900, the influence of Western powers in
urban China became more apparent, expressed visibly through the increased number of
foreign concessions filled with Western-styled buildings. These buildings were designed
by foreign architects and engineers following closely the stylistic development of
European architecture. These foreign professionals brought with them the specialized
discipline of architectural design, which hitherto had been carried out by master builders
of the craft tradition.
Church buildings were designed according to denominational preference. The twintower
Xujiahui Cathedral in Shanghai was completed in 1910, designed by British
architect W.M. Dowdall in French Gothic for a Jesuit missionary. English redbrick
Gothic Revival style can also be seen in many Protestant churches throughout the
country. The Catholic church in the former French concession in Tianjin was built in the
French Romanesque style and completed in 1916. These buildings with tall spires
dominated the low skylines of traditional Chinese cities. In prosperous trading cities,
however, more and more bank and commercial buildings reached greater and greater
height. Many early bank buildings were in the neoclassical style, as in the West. The first
bank building to be erected on the Bund in Shanghai was the St. Petersburg Russo-
Asiatic Bank, completed in 1901 and designed by H. Becker. This was the first building
in China to be constructed with reinforced-concrete, equipped with modern conveniences
and an elevator. However, the most impressive of bank buildings in this age must have
been the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank building designed by British architects Palmer
and Turner and completed in 1923. This seven-storied steel-framed building was
decorated in the neoclassical style surmounted by an imposing dome.
Apart from these buildings that are shadows of their European prototypes,
ecclectic-style buildings mixing traditional Chinese architecture with the
Western style were also attempted. The earliest example in this style is the
Peking Union Medical College in Beijing, designed by Harry Hussey
between 1916 and 1918. The scale and proportion of these buildings are
clearly Western classical in inspiration, whereas the details and the
gigantic roof are Chinese. Many foreign architects adopted this style for
Entries A–F 469
residences, churches, and colleges, among whom the most accomplished
was American architect Henry K.Murphy (1877–1954), who completed
many university campus projects in what he called “Adaptive Chinese
Renaissance” style (Cody, 1989).
1929–49
This period of modernist nationalism in architecture is significant in the development of
20th-century Chinese architecture in that many Chinese architects trained abroad returned
to make important contributions to the architectural scene. Among these were Zhuang
Jun, who returned from the University of Illinois, Urbana, in 1914; Liu Dunzhen returned
from Japan in 1923; and Yang Tingbao, Tong Jun, and Liang Sicheng all graduated from
the University of Pennsylvania and returned to China between 1927 and 1930. These
architects either taught in the first architectural schools in China, worked for foreign
architects in China, or formed partnerships in private practice. Their monumental designs
with minimal decorations were a direct result from their monumental training in the
Beaux-Arts tradition in the West. In this they followed the Hungarian architect L.E.
Hudec, whose modernist architecture was first seen in a church completed in 1925 and
some residences. The Chinese architects were increasingly given major commissions,
such as government buildings, banks, hotels, commercial buildings, and academic
buildings. Some high-rise buildings along the Shanghai Bund are also modernist in spirit.
Chinese architects influenced by the Bauhaus also designed buildings with clean lines
and devoid of decorations.
The other architectural style seen in this period was developed from the
Chinese ecclectic style of the foreign architects working for foreign
missions. With the Chinese style roof as the prominent feature of the style,
it was considered as a national style promoted heavily by the newly
formed national government at the end of the 1920s. Many government
buildings were constructed in this style in the new capital, Nanjing
(designated in 1927 and the planning of which was undertaken by Henry
Murphy). In 1929 a competition for the mausoleum for Sun Yat-sen, the
father of nationalistic China, was organized, and the brief clearly asked for
a nationalistic style. The winning design submitted by Lu Yanzhi displays
a symmetrical monumentality based on the Lincoln Memorial while
incorporating distinctive Chinese elements, including the roof, bracket
system, window surrounds, and decorative architrave. Just as the foreign
architects saw in the style the representation of Chinese tradition, the
government used the style for nation building. However, the style was
increasingly criticized by the advocates of the Modern movement for
being wasteful in material and for not representing the spirit of the modern
society China was moving toward. Heated debates were fully argued in
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architectural journals for many years in the 1930s, only to be abruptly cut
due to the Japanese occupation of eastern China between 1937 and 1945.
1949–79
After the setting up of the People’s Republic of China, institutional buildings were
designed following closely the Russian Monumental style. Between 1949 and 1957,
Russian experts helped in building the new China by promoting the principle of
neoclassicist monumentality with Chinese characteristics. Together with the first Fiveyear
Plan, many new functionalistic buildings were constructed for the new social order.
Invariably, these buildings are symmetrical both on the facade and in the internal layout.
Over the central entrance is usually a high tower. This form had a long-lasting influence
on the modern Chinese architectural style right through to the end of the century, due
partly to the influence of the centralizing symmetry of traditional Chinese architecture.
Two good examples are the Sovietdesigned Beijing and Shanghai Exhibition Halls of
1954.
With the Communist rule also came the reform of architectural practice.
Replacing the private architectural and engineering offices were many
state-owned design institutes, which are comprehensive professional
offices surviving to this day (Lin, 1988). At the end of the 1950s, Russian
experts were expelled from China, and the leading design principle
adopted was essentially nationalistic. However, unlike the earlier Chinese
Renaissance style of foreign architects or the national style of the 1930s,
the nationalistic style of this period was much restrained, using less of the
massive tiled roof and relying more on minor traditional decorative
elements. The ten major projects to celebrate the tenth anniversary of the
founding of the People’s Republic are important examples of this style.
Completed in 1959, some of these buildings are located at the heart of
Beijing, such as the Great Hall of the People (Zhao Dongri) and the
Revolutionary and History Museum (Zhang Kaiji). And others served
important political and infrastructure functions, such as the Cultural Palace
of Nationalities (Zhang Bo) and the Beijing Railway Station (Chen
Dengao). Other examples of this nationalistic style can be seen in other
parts of the country, such as the Great Hall of the People in Chongqing
(Zhang Jiade, 1954). Soon after the tenth anniversary, the country was
thrown into turmoil again with many political movements culminating in
the Cultural Revolution—all normal social activities stopped until 1976.
However, there were also pragmatic functionalist buildings constructed
even in this period, such as the extension to the Beijing Hotel (Dai Nianci,
1974).
Entries A–F 471
1979–2000
With the liberalization of the Chinese economy in 1979, the nationalistic style continued
to be adopted only for political purposes during this period of internationalization. This is
particularly apparent in buildings along the main east-west boulevard of Beijing,
Chang’an Jie, which are required by city officials to adopt national characteristics in their
form. This is accomplished by adding small Chinese pavilions on otherwise multistoried
modern buildings. However, there was also more genuine integration of the two forms,
such as the Beijing Library (Yang Yun, 1987), the Beijing West Railway Station (Zhu
Jialu, 1996), and the Peking University Library (Guan Shaoye, 1998). In these attempts
large tiled roofs appeared again on top of tall buildings, much like the examples from the
1920s. The search for a new Chinese architecture had found a new interpretation in the
Fragrant Hill Hotel completed in 1982. In it I.M.Pei used traditional elements from
southern China, such as diagonal windows and whitewashed walls, integrated in modern
and yet distinctive Chinese spaces. Similar examples designed by Chinese architects
include the Queli Hotel in Qufu (Dai Nianci, 1984) and a housing design in Ju’er Hutong
in Beijing (Wu Liangyong, 1990).
However, the most significant development of the period was the return of foreign
architects to the Chinese architectural scene in the last two decades of the century. They
were involved in joint ventures with local design institutes in the design of new hotels
operated by major Western hotel chains, such as the Beijing Jianguo Hotel (1982), the
Great Wall Sheraton of Beijing (1983), the Nanjing Jinling Hotel (1983), and the Crystal
Palace Hotel (1987). These buildings served important purposes of introducing the
International Style and modern construction technology to China, rapidly updating China
from its 20-year isolation from the rest of the world. In the 1990s other commercial and
cultural projects also benefited from international designers. These included the Beijing
Chinese-Japanese Youth Center (Kisho Kurokawa, 1990), the Shanghai Center (John
Portman and Associates, 1990), the Shanghai Grand Theater (Arte Jean Marie
Charpentier and Associates, 1998), the Industrial and Commercial Bank of China
Building, Beijing (Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, 1998), and the Bank of China, Beijing
(I.M.Pei and Partners, 1999). Some of these were the first facilities built to international
standards in China. The Shanghai Grand Theater has successfully utilized the curtain wall
both as a symbol of modernization in the day and a bright jewel at night. The curved roof
soaring into the sky is reminiscent of the traditional curved roof of south China and is a
source of inspiration for many buildings in China. Although some architects were
particularly sensitive to the local context, the majority designed massive curtain-wall
buildings totally out of context with the surroundings. Sadly, these buildings became the
icons of modernization and were copied all over China in a lesssatisfactory manner.
With the development of Pudong district in Shanghai, imposing skyscrapers, unseen
before in China, started to dominate the generally flat skyline. The two most notable
examples from this district are the 421-meter-tall Jin Mao Building (Skidmore, Owings
and Merrill, 1998) and the 460-meter World Financial Center (KPF Associates, 2000).
These projects were mainly won in an international competition, which was becoming the
norm for larger and joint-venture projects in the late 1990s. The foreign designers of
these projects were clearly sensitive to the Chinese tradition within which the buildings
are located. They often incorporated Chinese elements, motifs, or symbolism in their
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design. For example, the tallest building in China, the Jin Mau Building, was conceived
as a Chinese pagoda with a shimmering curtain wall, whereas the Word Financial Center
was designed to invoke the Chinese conception of the heaven as round and the earth as
square.
Other than the nationalistic and International Styles, there are Chinese architects who
boldly attempt architectural symbolism in building form. The Shanghai Museum is
designed in the shape of an ancient bronze cauldron (Xing Tonghe, 1996), and the
Memorial to the Victims of Japanese Massacre used a stark granite surface and dry
landscape to evoke the extreme horror of the massacre (Qi Kang, 1985). However, the
most controversial project that epitomizes the tension between internationalism and
nationalism in architecture is the winning entry of the design competition for the National
Grand Theater of China in Beijing. The design of Paul Andreu consists of a gigantic glass
dome covering three separate theater structures. Located next to the Great Hall of the
People, the heart of political China, this project has generated heated debates in the local
architectural community and was put on hold in 2000. The stark contrast of the
ultramodern structure with nationalistic architecture at such an important site and the
cultural symbolism of the glass dome are two major objections to the scheme. On the
other hand the supporters argue that China needs national icons of this sort to launch
itself into the new millennium. This is perhaps a clear indication that Chinese architecture
was standing at the crossroad at the end of the century. The desperate search for a
Chinese identity has so far yielded no satisfactory answer. In the meantime, the pressure
of commercial development has produced two extremes: well-conceived buildings
designed by international offices and big design institutes in major cities, and mediocre
buildings by the thousands all over the vast country.