Urban designer, United States
Best known for his dramatic depictions of the monumental architecture of a futuristic,
urban utopia, Hugh Ferriss contributed significantly in the 1920s and 1930s to an
appreciation for urban design within academic and professional circles, but more so
among a lay audience. Although he was a licensed architect, he chose not to build. He
dedicated his career to drawing, writing, and urban planning, becoming the preferred
renderer and consultant to some of the most notable practitioners of his day. Although
Ferriss shared with his modernist peers a belief in architecture’s agency in improving
urban society, he rejected the industrial references assumed in many of their proposals.
He sought to invest his designs with a spirituality that he felt absent both in international
style modernism and in an America dominated by corporate activity; the skyscraper—the
new icon of that activity—became his fundamental subject. His writings remained less
polemical and ultimately less influential than those of his modernist contemporaries,
whereas his widely circulated images became more influential. Although the last decades
of Ferriss’s career paled in comparison to his earlier notoriety, in the 1940s he could still
be lauded by such populist magazines as Time as “U.S. architecture’s most grandiose seer.”
Ferriss’s fame as an urban-design visionary proceeded from a pragmatic issue. After
New York City passed its zoning ordinance in 1916, which was intended to improve the
access of light and air into cavernous streets, new buildings were required to reduce their
massing as they rose in height. Ferriss’s “four stages” zoning envelope studies, published
in 1922 in collaboration with the architect Harvey Wiley Corbett, show the gradual
erosion of a tall block into a series of variously sized, adjacent, parallel slabs and were
the first studies to make architectural sense of this zoning legislation. He championed his
zoning solution, stating that the “efficiency and health of city life must be accepted as
mandatory requirements,” and he reinforced his brand of modernistic architectural
moralism and determinism, saying, “We are not contemplating the new architecture of a
city…we are contemplating the new architecture of a civilization.” In 1930, the historian
and critic Sheldon Cheney wrote, “More than any other architect… Ferriss influenced the
imagination of designers, students, and public. Many a building of 1928–29 looks like a
fulfillment of a Ferriss idealistic sketch of four or five years earlier.” Indeed, his zoning
study became a model for tall structures throughout the United States.
Entries A–F 861
Most of Ferriss’s renderings stemmed from commercial commissions for clients who
wished to join, for their benefit, 1920s economic optimism with the progressive spirit that
his drawings invoked. He also collaborated frequently with architects of the caliber of
Raymond Hood and Wallace Harrison and became the public-image-giver to projects
such as Rockefeller Center, the United Nations, Lincoln Center, and the New York
World’s Fair. Despite the fact that Ferriss had an aesthetic penchant for the architecture
of modern capitalism, he recognized the skyscraper as “a symbol of an age in which there
is no spiritual-ity.” Yet he believed that capitalism’s power might be used to reform the
city. His commercial work became intellectual and formal fodder for his theoretical
explorations, which strove to reinvest architecture with humanistic dimension. Unlike
most of his modernist peers, who may also be called “visionary,” Ferriss maintained that
modern technology was stifling the human spirit and chose to regard the city as an
extension of nature rather than the machine. He emphasized organic, geological, and
metaphysical analogies in reference to the “crystalline” properties of his architecture.
Ultimately, Ferriss’s intentions rarely transcended symbolic gesture.
Ferriss’s best-known publication, The Metropolis of Tomo rrow (1929), was a testament to his rendering talents,
his idealism, and his commitment to fashioning structures whose effect would restore
architecture’s lost emotional content. The book was divided into three parts. The first
part, “The City of Today,” features many of the tower renderings that established his
career. The second part, “Projected Trends,” depicts work ranging from his realistic
zoning studies to such fantastic proposals as multitiered streets clinging to the 20th story
of a building facade. Ferriss recognized the far-fetched nature of his proposals, yet he
surmised that they were nonetheless inevitable. The final part of the book, “An Imaginary
Metropolis,” summarizes his design theories for a Utopian city. In his Metropolis, vast
boulevards slide through a midrise urban fabric and link mile-high towers with gardens
arranged on the ledges of their stepped-back massings. For all its visionary appearance, it
was formally little more than a City Beautiful scheme; with no provision for industrial
sectors or housing, it addressed only a bourgeois citizenry. The city’s core, comprised of
a triangulated business, art, and science zone punctuated by a soaring “tower of
philosophy,” underscored Ferriss’s desires for a humanistic city yet proffered no
plausible social, political, or economic theory by which to implement the new society.
Ironically, the publication of his urban scheme coincided exactly with the financial
collapse of 1929, sobering his faith in architecture’s reach.
Ferriss’s second book, Powe r in Buildin gs: An Artis t’s View of Con temporar y Architectu re (1953), was far less ambitious in scope. Produced
following a journey across the country, the book portrays what he considered to be
America’s most inspirational structures, ranging from recently completed hydroelectric
dams to pre-Columbian pyramids. Almost embarrassed by his earlier naïveté, he began to
dedicate his drawing skills to built and pending designs rather than imaginary
architecture; his rejection of capitalism’s ability to work for social change is signaled by
the book’s near absence of high-rise towers.
Although Ferriss was alternately considered an architectural theorist and a delineator
of remarkable talent, history has established him only as the latter. Ferriss rejected the
Beaux-Arts representational tenets that he was taught at Washington University in St.
Louis; he felt that emphasis on two-dimensional drawing—plans, sections, and
elevation—was foreign to human experience. Likewise, he rejected the isometric
representations used by his staunchly modernist peers, stating that such techniques
Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 862
yielded passionless images and, by extension, passionless architecture. Ferriss conveyed
his ideas nearly exclusively through perspective. The drawings for which he ultimately
became renowned were noteworthy not for their accuracy (he took technical liberties in
order to show multiple vantage points in one view) but for their emotive capacity.
Ferriss-conceived architecture revealed through a subtractive process, leaving ultimately
finely chiseled masses where historical ornament was subjugated to smoothly massed
surfaces. After building up layers of carbon, he would begin to reveal the form of his
subject through erasure, yielding scenes whereby his architecture would appear as a
brilliant beacon. If the purpose of the setback ordinance was to suffuse the city of
darkness with light, then his system of erasure and the dark-to-light techniques of his
drawings were an appropriate parallel to this transformation. Although Ferriss’s work
continued to be well received by the general public, professional and academic
communities tended to be less generous. In 1954, six years before Ferriss’s death in New
York City, the architectural historian Vincent Scully dismissed Ferriss as “the last in a
line of romantic-classic architectural artists which began with Piranesi and Boullee.”
FENG SHUI
Feng Shui dates from before the earliest dynasty in China, when its principles were first
used to locate family graves to ensure good luck for all future descendants. Loosely
translated as “wind and water,” the term Feng Shui refers to the practice of discerning the
Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 858
harmonic arrangements of natural elements so as to enhance the flow of the life force, or
Chi; for Western audiences, the term is most directly defined as “geomancy” or
“divination.” In the context of design, Feng Shui encourages a healthy and ecological
approach to the built environment, such that humans and nature live together in the best
possible relationship. In creating a sensitive environment, Feng Shui not only balances
the natural forces of the universe but also cares for the psychic well-being of humankind.
Feng Shui does not deny the cyclical forces of nature, which ultimately ensure that good
and bad luck ebb and flow at different times; rather, its primary goal is to achieve the
optimum balance between contrasting opposites to the benefit of human existence.
Feng Shui’s principles center on the idea that the Chi must flow freely in and around
the human environment. A positive flow of Chi will have a positive influence on
humankind, allowing one’s labors to reach their highest level of success. According to
Feng Shui masters, the Chi can radiate with lesser and greater force up from the earth.
The strength of the Chi can be read from the natural elements and the physical
appearance of a location. For example, mountains and volcanoes show where the Chi has
risen above the earth, whereas arid deserts demonstrate a lack of Chi. Feng Shui masters
can measure the quantity of Chi present in an area by observing the soil and vegetation
and noting the position of natural elements, such as mountains and waterways, relative to
a particular site. Humankind is also an element in determining the relationship between
the earth and the Chi, and the human body can, like the earth, demonstrate a good or bad
flow of Chi. Healthy bodies are seen as a reflection of a good and positive flow of Chi,
whereas sickness indicates an unhealthy element. Because there is no end and no
beginning to Chi, humans can be both the cause and the solution to the negative flow,
such that the person influences the flow of the Chi in the environment or the environment
affects the level of Chi in the person. In either case, the problem can usually be corrected
by following the guidance of a Feng Shui master.
In observing the flow of the Chi, Feng Shui requires that the contrasting forces of
nature be balanced in harmonic arrangements. This principle is explained through the
concepts of Yin and Yang, which are identified by a half-white, half-black circle. Yin and
Yang represent dualities, or opposites, within the Chi, such that together they balance into
a whole. For example, Yin is dark, passive, and female, whereas Yang is light, active, and
male. Generally, these primordial forces are seen as complementary, and they symbolize
the harmony of the universe, for without the one, there cannot be the other. Feng Shui
seeks to balance the two by matching the Yin elements with the Yang. In terms of
landscape, an area that is rich in Yin might lack Yang and thus will not bring good
fortune to the owner. In many cases, however, a deficiency of either Yin or Yang can be
corrected by the placement of certain objects—mirrors, fishbowls, or plants—to reflect
and enhance the flow of the missing element.
Feng Shui masters can further discern the flow of Chi through the use of trigrams.
Like coins, trigrams have two outcomes, whole or broken, which are represented by one
long straight line or two short ones, respectively. Trigrams usually come in sets of three,
thus making eight individual arrangements of long and short lines. Each of these patterns
represents a quality (nature, heaven, earth, thunder, mountain, fire, wind, lake, and
water), and they may also represent family relationships, directions, time, and change.
When properly aligned with a compass, trigrams can ensure that the proper placement of
furniture, doorways, windows, and rooms occurs under the most favorable conditions.
Entries A–F 859
Trigrams can been seen as types of omens, but they also ensure that the cycles of humans
and nature are respected and remind humanity that the universe is never static.
The principles of Feng Shui encourage buildings to be placed, designed, and arranged
with reference to particularly lucky attributes within the landscape. Feng Shui masters
recommend that houses and offices be sheltered on their north side by a mountain or hill
and that a source of water be placed to the south. Houses should always face south to
appreciate the sun and the fresh winds from that direction, and they should be set up on
the land rather than down in a hollow. In plan, houses should not have windows or doors
opposite each other and should not have sharp angles or tight proportions. Particular
rooms should be located farther from others; for example, the kitchen should not open
directly onto the living room, and the stove should be in the southeast corner. For interior
decor, beds should be elevated from the ground and should not face the west, unless the
resident’s astrology says otherwise. Beds should also not be positioned opposite open
doors or too near the windows, as this will affect sleeping patterns. Other furniture may
be placed according to a Feng Shui compass that directs which sections of the room will
be lucky, thus encouraging the prosperity of the family.
Feng Shui is still practiced today not only the East but in the West as well. In China,
Feng Shui masters are routinely consulted for readings on projects that range from houses
to skyscrapers. Most recently, I.M.Pei’s Hong Kong Bank was positioned according to
Feng Shui principles, with a hill behind it and a gentle slope leading to the harbor in
front. Once completed, the Hong Kong Bank was regarded as having favorably respected
the principles of Feng Shui, unlike its neighbor, the Bank of China, whose sharp corners,
domineering scale, and shiny facade negatively affected the surrounding neighborhood.
Residents complained that the Bank of China’s mirrorlike facade reflected bad elements
back to the neighborhood and that the sharp angles cut into the local businesses like
knives. Since its completion, the Bank of China has not been well regarded by the
population and has had some trouble finding tenants. In the West, Feng Shui has become
popular among designers who respect the principles of harmony and balance with nature,
and Feng Shui experts are routinely consulted for interior decorating and even for
architectural design. Despite their age, the principles of Feng Shui resonate with a
modern society that still strives for a healthy, balanced lifestyle.
used to locate family graves to ensure good luck for all future descendants. Loosely
translated as “wind and water,” the term Feng Shui refers to the practice of discerning the
Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 858
harmonic arrangements of natural elements so as to enhance the flow of the life force, or
Chi; for Western audiences, the term is most directly defined as “geomancy” or
“divination.” In the context of design, Feng Shui encourages a healthy and ecological
approach to the built environment, such that humans and nature live together in the best
possible relationship. In creating a sensitive environment, Feng Shui not only balances
the natural forces of the universe but also cares for the psychic well-being of humankind.
Feng Shui does not deny the cyclical forces of nature, which ultimately ensure that good
and bad luck ebb and flow at different times; rather, its primary goal is to achieve the
optimum balance between contrasting opposites to the benefit of human existence.
Feng Shui’s principles center on the idea that the Chi must flow freely in and around
the human environment. A positive flow of Chi will have a positive influence on
humankind, allowing one’s labors to reach their highest level of success. According to
Feng Shui masters, the Chi can radiate with lesser and greater force up from the earth.
The strength of the Chi can be read from the natural elements and the physical
appearance of a location. For example, mountains and volcanoes show where the Chi has
risen above the earth, whereas arid deserts demonstrate a lack of Chi. Feng Shui masters
can measure the quantity of Chi present in an area by observing the soil and vegetation
and noting the position of natural elements, such as mountains and waterways, relative to
a particular site. Humankind is also an element in determining the relationship between
the earth and the Chi, and the human body can, like the earth, demonstrate a good or bad
flow of Chi. Healthy bodies are seen as a reflection of a good and positive flow of Chi,
whereas sickness indicates an unhealthy element. Because there is no end and no
beginning to Chi, humans can be both the cause and the solution to the negative flow,
such that the person influences the flow of the Chi in the environment or the environment
affects the level of Chi in the person. In either case, the problem can usually be corrected
by following the guidance of a Feng Shui master.
In observing the flow of the Chi, Feng Shui requires that the contrasting forces of
nature be balanced in harmonic arrangements. This principle is explained through the
concepts of Yin and Yang, which are identified by a half-white, half-black circle. Yin and
Yang represent dualities, or opposites, within the Chi, such that together they balance into
a whole. For example, Yin is dark, passive, and female, whereas Yang is light, active, and
male. Generally, these primordial forces are seen as complementary, and they symbolize
the harmony of the universe, for without the one, there cannot be the other. Feng Shui
seeks to balance the two by matching the Yin elements with the Yang. In terms of
landscape, an area that is rich in Yin might lack Yang and thus will not bring good
fortune to the owner. In many cases, however, a deficiency of either Yin or Yang can be
corrected by the placement of certain objects—mirrors, fishbowls, or plants—to reflect
and enhance the flow of the missing element.
Feng Shui masters can further discern the flow of Chi through the use of trigrams.
Like coins, trigrams have two outcomes, whole or broken, which are represented by one
long straight line or two short ones, respectively. Trigrams usually come in sets of three,
thus making eight individual arrangements of long and short lines. Each of these patterns
represents a quality (nature, heaven, earth, thunder, mountain, fire, wind, lake, and
water), and they may also represent family relationships, directions, time, and change.
When properly aligned with a compass, trigrams can ensure that the proper placement of
furniture, doorways, windows, and rooms occurs under the most favorable conditions.
Entries A–F 859
Trigrams can been seen as types of omens, but they also ensure that the cycles of humans
and nature are respected and remind humanity that the universe is never static.
The principles of Feng Shui encourage buildings to be placed, designed, and arranged
with reference to particularly lucky attributes within the landscape. Feng Shui masters
recommend that houses and offices be sheltered on their north side by a mountain or hill
and that a source of water be placed to the south. Houses should always face south to
appreciate the sun and the fresh winds from that direction, and they should be set up on
the land rather than down in a hollow. In plan, houses should not have windows or doors
opposite each other and should not have sharp angles or tight proportions. Particular
rooms should be located farther from others; for example, the kitchen should not open
directly onto the living room, and the stove should be in the southeast corner. For interior
decor, beds should be elevated from the ground and should not face the west, unless the
resident’s astrology says otherwise. Beds should also not be positioned opposite open
doors or too near the windows, as this will affect sleeping patterns. Other furniture may
be placed according to a Feng Shui compass that directs which sections of the room will
be lucky, thus encouraging the prosperity of the family.
Feng Shui is still practiced today not only the East but in the West as well. In China,
Feng Shui masters are routinely consulted for readings on projects that range from houses
to skyscrapers. Most recently, I.M.Pei’s Hong Kong Bank was positioned according to
Feng Shui principles, with a hill behind it and a gentle slope leading to the harbor in
front. Once completed, the Hong Kong Bank was regarded as having favorably respected
the principles of Feng Shui, unlike its neighbor, the Bank of China, whose sharp corners,
domineering scale, and shiny facade negatively affected the surrounding neighborhood.
Residents complained that the Bank of China’s mirrorlike facade reflected bad elements
back to the neighborhood and that the sharp angles cut into the local businesses like
knives. Since its completion, the Bank of China has not been well regarded by the
population and has had some trouble finding tenants. In the West, Feng Shui has become
popular among designers who respect the principles of harmony and balance with nature,
and Feng Shui experts are routinely consulted for interior decorating and even for
architectural design. Despite their age, the principles of Feng Shui resonate with a
modern society that still strives for a healthy, balanced lifestyle.
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