Designed by Michel de Klerk, completed 1920 Amsterdam, the Netherlands
The Eigen Haard Housing Estate in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, consists of three
blocks of housing in the Spaarndammerbuurt, a residential district for workers that occupies approximately
54 acres in the northwest part of Amsterdam. Designed by Michel de Klerk (1884–1923)
between 1914 and 1920, this complex has been recognized as his finest achievement in
the field of housing, depicting his Expressionist style and ultimately becoming one of the
symbolic structures of the Amsterdam School.
Inspired by contemporary ideas that can be traced to the teachings of H.P.Berlage
(1856–1934), de Klerk was committed to the basic Berlage credo of “truth in
Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 740
architecture” as expressed through the unity of spatial organization and material use. In
opposition to the abstract Cubism of the De Stijl movement, Berlage emphasized
experimentation with the artistic potential of practical solutions and the role of rhythmic
architectural forms in the evocation of moods, thus preparing the way for the
Expressionism of the Amsterdam School.
After the passing of the Woningwet (Netherlands Housing Act of 1901), which encouraged the
sponsorship of low-cost housing, and the National Housing Council, founded in 1913,
which unified the large number of Dutch housing societies, the Amsterdam architectural
milieu between 1915 and 1930 involved extensive public housing. Although initially built
as low-rise, one- or two-family houses, Amsterdam saw a rising popularity in three- and
four-story apartment buildings that were built around communal courts. These tuindo rpen (garden
villages) were based on the English Garden City movement and the principles of Briton
Ebenezer Howard (1850–1928).
Because the post-World War I building commissions were almost solely public
housing and because of the presumption that good housing was a means of elevating the
working class to a higher social level, architects of the Amsterdam School instinctively
became involved with the public housing projects. The first block of the Spaarndammerbuu rt complex was
commissioned by contractors Hille and Kamphuys, not by the Eigen Haard (One’s Own
Health) housing association, which commissioned the second and third building units. A
misprint in the Amsterdam School publication Wendingen (Trends) in 1924 erroneously attributed
all three structures to Eigen Haard, and it has been thus reported ever since.
The four- and five-story first and second blocks, constructed in 1914 and 1915,
respectively, flank the spaarndammerplantsoen, the small communal park. The third building, designed in 1917,
with its intimate pleintje (small public square) and characteristic spire, forms a triangular block
perpendicular to the earlier two buildings and across Oos tzaans traat (East Zaan Street) and is similar in
concept to the first two but different enough to gain additional attention from his many
critics. The urban fabric is defined by the “urban block” consisting of the three-unit
cluster and their accompanying community square. The three blocks are articulated
differently, each with structural and decorative qualities that establish a specific character
that is enhanced by bold contrasts in shape, texture, and color. Examples of this
sculptural aesthetic can be seen through de Klerk’s eloquent use of brick and by the
apparent rigidity of the strong axial composition that is counterpoised by seemingly
arbitrary apertures, cylinders, cones, cantilevered balconies, textured planes, curved wall
masses, multi-paneled windows, and multi-angled roofs. The extraordinary range of
formal design variations elevated the buildings from simply housing construction to
works of art.
Detailing, technique, and massing distinguished de Klerk’s work from that of his
contemporaries. His creative and picturesque use of brick combinations, such as clinkers,
corrugated bricks, and regular bricks laid in a double-stretcher Flemish bond pattern, may
have reflected Berlage’s distaste for smooth-faced brick and stucco but not his belief of
honesty in materials. De Klerk did not feel that the simulated was deceptive but instead
believed that traditional effects of materials had a more enduring value and therefore
sometimes produced a hand-sculpted look with machine-made masonry units. Also, by
adroitly molding a diverse yet unified assemblage of housing units into these large-scale
blocks, de Klerk was able to further contrast with the lack of rhythm and the monotony of
the existing housing stock.
Entries A–F 741
Following Berlage’s philosophy of architectural truth in the definition and enrichment
of the exterior spaces, de Klerk applied geometric emphasis on major spatial divisions.
Parabolic, curvilinear, and hemicylindrical forms define entrances, stairs, and window
separations, respectively, and decorative hoists indicate attic storage areas.
De Klerk’s lack of pretension in his artistic treatment of all building types, regardless
of their intended function or end users, gained him due respect by some of his colleagues
but especially with the residents of the Eigen Haard housing units. This
nondiscriminatory approach to design allowed those in the working class to also
experience the sculptural qualities of subsistence by enriching their perceptual
experiences.
Others felt, however, that this method of design was indeed pretentious. The
curvilinear forms were deemed illogical, the ornamentation embellishments were
criticized as structurally dishonest, and the overall design was thought to have no
connection to traditional architecture. Critics complained that his projects were too
opulent and wasteful, whereas others defended that the dignified dwellings were the work
of an “extraordinary artist” and showed a high degree of sophistication and therefore had
cultural significance and value.
Eliciting feelings from euphoria to nausea, the Spaarndammerbuur t complex became such a subject of
criticism that one critic went so far as to accuse de Klerk of creating details that were
“not only doubtful, but contrived, bizarre and unsound.” It was also said that the “total
design leans toward the ridiculous or the overrefined, and then towards decadent” (see
Gratama, 1915). Perhaps because of the publication of these comments in the widely
circulated Bouwkundig Weekblad, the words “bizarre,” “individual,” and “decadent” became inextricably
linked to de Klerk and ultimately to the Amsterdam School as a whole.
De Klerk’s engagingly provocative design of the Eigen Haard Housing Estate
reflected his desire to solve each building problem independently with an unpredictable
artistic composition. Although once thought to have little in common with the major
monuments of the 20th century, this complex now stands as a monument itself for the
masterful artistry and audacious individualism of its architect who, because of an
untimely death, was not able to further develop these skills.
EGYPTIAN REVIVAL
This architectural and decorative arts style is among the most easily identifiable of all
revivalist styles. Early Egyptian architecture has been studied, admired, and emulated
throughout time. The arch was used in ancient Egypt for what is believed to be the first
time, and the ancient Greeks considered Egypt the source of all civilizations. During the
Renaissance, Egyptian motifs were incorporated into the decorative arts, and many
architectural and decorative traditions to follow were influenced by Egyptian ornament.
For centuries, Egypt was inaccessible to foreigners because of its relative isolation and
strict religious and political restrictions. Early examples of the style were fanciful and
Entries A–F 737
highly interpretive, with no effort made for accuracy until the 19th century, when
archaeological discoveries in Egypt captured the popular imagination. In 1798, Napoleon
initiated a military campaign into Egypt and sent numerous scholars and researchers to
excavate archaeological sites, resulting in a 22-volume treatise, Des cription de l’ Egypte (1829), a text that
would later become a major source of inspiration for designers. In addition, in 1799, the
Rosetta Stone, a basalt slab covered in hieroglyphics, was discovered by Napoleon’s
troops. Rubbings of the stone were made and sent to several European scholars, foremost
of whom was Jean Francois Champollion, who deciphered the hieroglyphics and
identified the Greek and demotic scripts inscribed on the stone. These events fueled a
further fascination with the Egyptian style, but a pervasive romantic interpretation of
these findings diluted its historically accurate application.
The Egyptian Revival style is expressed primarily in two ways—as a specific massing
with corresponding structural elements that evoke the architecture of ancient Egypt and
as decorative ornament that is applied to a conventional building. In the case of
architectural massing, each example of Egyptian Revival is configured with distinctive,
exotic features. Frequently, buildings in this style suggest the architecture of dynastic
Egypt in multiple ways—with battered (slanted) walls; columns that resemble bundles of
bound stalks with lotus, papyrus bud, or flowering blossom capitals; tall window frames
that mimic the battered walls and; an overall massing effect with heavy, thick walls and
strong, simple geometric volumes. In addition, an Egyptian Revival structure may include
an Egyptian gorge or cavetto cornice—a partially rounded, outwardly concave molding at
the roofline. Another common device is a pylon, a pair of towers with battered walls that
flank an entrance and is reminiscent of the monumental gateway into an ancient temple.
In terms of applied ornament, the Egyptian designs are incised or affixed, usually to the
surface of a fairly conventional building. The affixed elements are often in the medium of
terra-cotta. One of the most commonly used symbols is the winged sun disk flanked by
serpents, which represents the sun goddess joining the sun god Ra in his journey across
the sky. The disk symbolizes eternity, the wings serve as the spirit, and the serpents
represent wisdom. Another popular icon is the scarab beetle, which represents the sun
god and symbolizes life eternal.
There are limited examples of the Egyptian Revival style in Europe, but it
is a phenomenon found primarily in the United States, in cities both large
and small. The style became popular during the 1830s, the 1850s, the end
of the 19th century, and the 1930s, during the Art Deco era. During the
19th century, architects in the United States, most of whom had received
classical training in Europe, were attempting to assimilate the
conventional and classically academic architecture of Europe to the
different geography and available building materials of the country. It was
a time of great experimentation in the design and adaptation of popular
Greek Revival, neoclassical, and Renaissance styles. However, because
Egyptian architecture was not completely embraced by the traditional
vocabulary of academic and Beaux Arts architects, it remained a stylistic
experiment that was not popularized by a definitive school of American
architects. Nonetheless, architectural structures including jails,
Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 738
monuments, cemetery structures, theaters, churches, and Masonic lodges
were built in this style, including Robert Mills’s Washington Monument
(Washington, D.C., 1833); Thomas U.Walter’s Debtors’ Apartments (built
1835, demolished 1968) at Moyamensing Prison in Philadelphia;
H.H.Richardson’s Ames Monument (1882), located near Laramie,
Wyoming; and Thomas
Paul Gerhardt’s Marmon Hupmobile
Auto showroom, Chicago (1910)
B.Stewart’s Medical College of Virginia (Richmond, 1845). Daniel Burnham and John
Root’s Monadnock Building (1891) in Chicago is a remarkable 16-story office structure
built of traditional brick and mortar that evokes ancient Egyptian architectural forms in
its severe simplicity. It is a tall, narrow tower, devoid of all traditional ornament, that an
architectural critic once likened to a chimney.
American Masonic lodges, in particular, have had an interesting relationship with the
Egyptian Revival style, and many well-known architects were Masons. The Egyptian
Hall of the Masonic Temple (1873) in Philadelphia by architect James Windrim, a
heavily embellished, large, high-ceilinged room, and the Masonic Temple (1912) in
Charlotte, North Carolina, by architects Hooks and Rogers, are two examples. The
theatrical aspects of this style provided a backdrop for the secret rites and clandestine
activities for which the Masons are known.
In the 20th century, the Egyptian Revival style reached its zenith in the Art Deco era
of the 1930s. The development of polychromatic terra-cotta as a decorative architectural
medium and Art Deco’s abstract geometric design often manifested in quasi-Egyptian
Entries A–F 739
ornament. The style was popular in the design of theaters and commercial buildings. The
best-known example of this type is the fully restored Egyptian (Ada) Theater (1927) in
Boise, Idaho, by architects Tourtelotte and Hummel. A good example of a commercial
application is the Reebie Storage and Moving Company headquarters (1923) in Chicago
by architect George Kingsley—an otherwise conventional building profusely ornamented
both inside and out with Egyptian design. Another example is Paul Gerhardt’s Marmon
Hupmobile Auto showroom (1910) in Chicago, an unexpectedly pleasing storefront with
a heavily embellished temple facade. A submission to the Tribune Tower Competition of
1923 by Alfred Fellheimer and Stewart Wagner, architects from New York, is a large
obelisk with clear Egyptoid references. Also noteworthy is the use of the lotus blossom in
a stylized Art Deco pattern incised above some of the Chrysler Building’s elevator cab
doors.
After the 1930s, very few structures were built in the Egyptian Revival style until the
1970s, when it resurfaced in the redesign of the entrance to the Louvre (Paris, 1970–77)
by I.M.Pei, in which a prominent feature is a pyramid structure. Also notable is the
design of the Luxor Casino and Hotel (1993) in Las Vegas by architect Vernon Simpson.
This massive casino/recreation complex incorporates a pyramid, a sphinx, and Egyptian
interior decor, bridging the distinction between revivalism and theme-based novelty that
has often typified this stylistic form.
revivalist styles. Early Egyptian architecture has been studied, admired, and emulated
throughout time. The arch was used in ancient Egypt for what is believed to be the first
time, and the ancient Greeks considered Egypt the source of all civilizations. During the
Renaissance, Egyptian motifs were incorporated into the decorative arts, and many
architectural and decorative traditions to follow were influenced by Egyptian ornament.
For centuries, Egypt was inaccessible to foreigners because of its relative isolation and
strict religious and political restrictions. Early examples of the style were fanciful and
Entries A–F 737
highly interpretive, with no effort made for accuracy until the 19th century, when
archaeological discoveries in Egypt captured the popular imagination. In 1798, Napoleon
initiated a military campaign into Egypt and sent numerous scholars and researchers to
excavate archaeological sites, resulting in a 22-volume treatise, Des cription de l’ Egypte (1829), a text that
would later become a major source of inspiration for designers. In addition, in 1799, the
Rosetta Stone, a basalt slab covered in hieroglyphics, was discovered by Napoleon’s
troops. Rubbings of the stone were made and sent to several European scholars, foremost
of whom was Jean Francois Champollion, who deciphered the hieroglyphics and
identified the Greek and demotic scripts inscribed on the stone. These events fueled a
further fascination with the Egyptian style, but a pervasive romantic interpretation of
these findings diluted its historically accurate application.
The Egyptian Revival style is expressed primarily in two ways—as a specific massing
with corresponding structural elements that evoke the architecture of ancient Egypt and
as decorative ornament that is applied to a conventional building. In the case of
architectural massing, each example of Egyptian Revival is configured with distinctive,
exotic features. Frequently, buildings in this style suggest the architecture of dynastic
Egypt in multiple ways—with battered (slanted) walls; columns that resemble bundles of
bound stalks with lotus, papyrus bud, or flowering blossom capitals; tall window frames
that mimic the battered walls and; an overall massing effect with heavy, thick walls and
strong, simple geometric volumes. In addition, an Egyptian Revival structure may include
an Egyptian gorge or cavetto cornice—a partially rounded, outwardly concave molding at
the roofline. Another common device is a pylon, a pair of towers with battered walls that
flank an entrance and is reminiscent of the monumental gateway into an ancient temple.
In terms of applied ornament, the Egyptian designs are incised or affixed, usually to the
surface of a fairly conventional building. The affixed elements are often in the medium of
terra-cotta. One of the most commonly used symbols is the winged sun disk flanked by
serpents, which represents the sun goddess joining the sun god Ra in his journey across
the sky. The disk symbolizes eternity, the wings serve as the spirit, and the serpents
represent wisdom. Another popular icon is the scarab beetle, which represents the sun
god and symbolizes life eternal.
There are limited examples of the Egyptian Revival style in Europe, but it
is a phenomenon found primarily in the United States, in cities both large
and small. The style became popular during the 1830s, the 1850s, the end
of the 19th century, and the 1930s, during the Art Deco era. During the
19th century, architects in the United States, most of whom had received
classical training in Europe, were attempting to assimilate the
conventional and classically academic architecture of Europe to the
different geography and available building materials of the country. It was
a time of great experimentation in the design and adaptation of popular
Greek Revival, neoclassical, and Renaissance styles. However, because
Egyptian architecture was not completely embraced by the traditional
vocabulary of academic and Beaux Arts architects, it remained a stylistic
experiment that was not popularized by a definitive school of American
architects. Nonetheless, architectural structures including jails,
Encyclopedia of 20th-century architecture 738
monuments, cemetery structures, theaters, churches, and Masonic lodges
were built in this style, including Robert Mills’s Washington Monument
(Washington, D.C., 1833); Thomas U.Walter’s Debtors’ Apartments (built
1835, demolished 1968) at Moyamensing Prison in Philadelphia;
H.H.Richardson’s Ames Monument (1882), located near Laramie,
Wyoming; and Thomas
Paul Gerhardt’s Marmon Hupmobile
Auto showroom, Chicago (1910)
B.Stewart’s Medical College of Virginia (Richmond, 1845). Daniel Burnham and John
Root’s Monadnock Building (1891) in Chicago is a remarkable 16-story office structure
built of traditional brick and mortar that evokes ancient Egyptian architectural forms in
its severe simplicity. It is a tall, narrow tower, devoid of all traditional ornament, that an
architectural critic once likened to a chimney.
American Masonic lodges, in particular, have had an interesting relationship with the
Egyptian Revival style, and many well-known architects were Masons. The Egyptian
Hall of the Masonic Temple (1873) in Philadelphia by architect James Windrim, a
heavily embellished, large, high-ceilinged room, and the Masonic Temple (1912) in
Charlotte, North Carolina, by architects Hooks and Rogers, are two examples. The
theatrical aspects of this style provided a backdrop for the secret rites and clandestine
activities for which the Masons are known.
In the 20th century, the Egyptian Revival style reached its zenith in the Art Deco era
of the 1930s. The development of polychromatic terra-cotta as a decorative architectural
medium and Art Deco’s abstract geometric design often manifested in quasi-Egyptian
Entries A–F 739
ornament. The style was popular in the design of theaters and commercial buildings. The
best-known example of this type is the fully restored Egyptian (Ada) Theater (1927) in
Boise, Idaho, by architects Tourtelotte and Hummel. A good example of a commercial
application is the Reebie Storage and Moving Company headquarters (1923) in Chicago
by architect George Kingsley—an otherwise conventional building profusely ornamented
both inside and out with Egyptian design. Another example is Paul Gerhardt’s Marmon
Hupmobile Auto showroom (1910) in Chicago, an unexpectedly pleasing storefront with
a heavily embellished temple facade. A submission to the Tribune Tower Competition of
1923 by Alfred Fellheimer and Stewart Wagner, architects from New York, is a large
obelisk with clear Egyptoid references. Also noteworthy is the use of the lotus blossom in
a stylized Art Deco pattern incised above some of the Chrysler Building’s elevator cab
doors.
After the 1930s, very few structures were built in the Egyptian Revival style until the
1970s, when it resurfaced in the redesign of the entrance to the Louvre (Paris, 1970–77)
by I.M.Pei, in which a prominent feature is a pyramid structure. Also notable is the
design of the Luxor Casino and Hotel (1993) in Las Vegas by architect Vernon Simpson.
This massive casino/recreation complex incorporates a pyramid, a sphinx, and Egyptian
interior decor, bridging the distinction between revivalism and theme-based novelty that
has often typified this stylistic form.
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